Mythical Ancient Emperors Who Fought Over the Birth of China

In Zhengzhou, China, stands a monumental testament to antiquity: a towering sculpture, reaching a staggering 106 meters (348 ft) in height. This awe-inspiring structure immortalizes two fabled figures from Chinese lore: Yandi, remembered as the “Flame Emperor,” and Huangdi, revered as the “Yellow Emperor.” Erected to commemorate their roles as the progenitors of Chinese civilization, these statues serve as enduring symbols of the mythical epoch that shaped the nation’s political and economic landscape.

While Yandi’s legacy is enshrouded in mythological lore, certain historical accounts of China trace back to the reign of Huangdi, marked by his victory over Yandi. This pivotal event facilitated the consolidation of disparate Chinese tribes, culminating in the emergence of a more unified China. The enduring influence of these ancient rulers persists in contemporary Chinese culture, symbolizing their integral roles in the birth of China. The legacy of these two great rulers lives on in modern-day Chinese society, embodying their enduring impact on the nation’s cultural identity and historical narrative.

Stone Figures of Emperors Yandi and Huangdi, Yellow River Scenic Area, Zhengzhou, China. (夏至远行 / CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Myth of Yandi: Unraveling the Enigma of the Flame Emperor

Yandi, also known as the Yan Emperor or 炎帝 in Chinese, is a legendary figure within Chinese history. It has long been debated whether Yandi is the same person another mythological god-emperor known as Shennong who is credited with creating agricultural society within ancient China. The connection comes from the title of Yandi or “flame emperor,” which is used to describe both of these figures.

It has been suggested that the title of Yandi was given to Shennong posthumously, but on the other hand, there seems to be a consensus that these two were one in the same. Both tend to be conflated due to the inventions and accomplishments attributed to them. For example, both have been linked to the introduction of fire as a land clearing technique in Chinese agriculture.

Shennong, the Farmer God. Inscription reads: ‘The Farmer God taught agriculture based on land use; he opened up the land and planted millet to encourage the myriad people.’ Mural painting from Han Dynasty. (Public domain)

However, there is a middle ground in this debate which states that Yandi could more correctly be translated as “flame emperors,” with emphasis on the plural. This suggests that there was a succession of flame emperors with Shennong being the first, until the final Yandi met defeat at the hands of the “Yellow Emperor.”

If there was more than one Yandi, the final flame emperor came to the end of his reign in the third of a series of three battles, known as the Battle of Banquan. This was the first battle in Chinese history as recorded by Sima Qian’s  Record of the Grand Historian. This battle is credited with the formation of the Huaxia tribe, which is the basis of the Han Chinese civilization.

After three major engagements, the Yandi lost the battle and surrendered leadership to the Yellow Emperor. The Youxiong and the Shennong tribes then made an alliance, forming the Yanhuang tribe. Under the leadership of the Yellow Emperor, the newly combined force went to war with Chi You in the Battle of Zhuolu. Coming out of this battle victorious, the Yanhuang tribe established their cultural and political dominance in China proper.

Shennong, (perhaps also Yandi), one of the mythical Emperors of Ancient China. (Public domain)

Huangdi, the Yellow Emperor: Common Ancestor of the Chinese

Huangdi, or the Yellow Emperor, was a deity in Chinese religion as well as one of the legendary Chinese emperors and a cultural hero. The traditional and largely accepted dates for the reign of Huangdi are 2697 to 2597, or 2698 to 2598 BC. He has been called the originator of the centralized state following his defeat of Yandi and the consolidation of the Yanhuang tribe.

Huangdi is now widely regarded as the father of Chinese civilization and as an ancestor to all Chinese people. He is also seen as a cosmic ruler and a patron of the esoteric arts with a large number of texts, including political treatises, attributed to him.

Portrait of the Yellow Emperor, or Huangdi, by an unknown Chinese artist. (Public domain)

Unlike Yandi, Huangdi is seen more as a historical figure rather than a mythological one. As such, Sima Qian’s  Records of the Grand Historian begins with the Yellow Emperor, while only briefly talking about those that came before him. Many scholars agree that the Yellow Emperor began as a god-like figure, much like Yandi, but later came to be seen as a historical one.

In traditional Chinese accounts, the Yellow Emperor is credited with improving the livelihood of the nomadic hunters of his tribe. He taught them how to build shelters, tame wild animals and grow the Five Grains—soybeans, wheat, broomcorn, foxtail millet and hemp or rice (depending on the version). However, in other accounts Shennong is said to have brought to latter to the Chinese, and if Shennong and Yandi are indeed the same figure this can be traced back to him.

Huangdi is also credited with the invention of certain carts, boats and clothing. Continuing the list, he is also said to have invented the modern calendar, Chinese astronomy, mathematical calculations, the Chinese character writing system, the dying of clothes and the weaving of silk, as well as a primitive version of soccer ( cuju).

The Mausoleum of the Yellow Emperor in the Shaanxi Province of China. (N509FZ / CC BY-SA 4.0)

Honoring the Birth of China: Remembering the Yellow Emperor

The Yellow Emperor has been represented as having four faces in popular culture, providing the ability to control in all four directions. Legend has it that he lived in the 27th century BC, and after ruling for over 100 years he passed away and became immortal after witnessing the appearance of the  fenghuang, or Chinese phoenix, an immortal bird from Chinese mythology.

The Mausoleum of the Yellow Emperor, located in the Shaanxi Province of China, is a sacred site steeped in history and legend. Believed to be the final resting place of Huangdi, it draws visitors seeking to connect with ancient Chinese culture and heritage. Surrounded by serene landscapes, the mausoleum stands as a testament to the enduring legacy of one of China’s most revered figures. Set within a scenic area, it is surrounded by thousands of cypress trees, many of them over a thousand years of age.

In addition to the well-known Mausoleum in Shaanxi Province, there are other sites in China claiming to be the tomb of the Yellow Emperor. These locations, scattered across provinces like Henan and Hubei, hold significance as they represent regional beliefs and historical connections to Huangdi, showcasing his enduring cultural impact throughout Chinese civilization.

Modern-day Chinese people refer to themselves as the “Descendants of Yan and Yellow Emperor,” although there are some minority groups within China that have their own mythical origins that do not involve Huangdi.

The veneration of the Yellow Emperor, a pivotal character within the story of the birth of China, was banned in the People’s Republic of China until the conclusion of the Cultural Revolution. The proscription lasted until the 1980s, when the government reversed its stance, reviving the “Yellow Emperor Cult.” Today, Huangdi continues to serve as a potent nationalist emblem, symbolizing Chinese identity and unity. His revival coincided with broader cultural and political shifts in China, reflecting a renewed appreciation for traditional heritage amidst modernization efforts. The resurgence of the Yellow Emperor’s cult underscores the dynamic interplay between historical tradition and contemporary nationalism in Chinese society.

Top image: Stone Figures of Yandi and Huangdi, Yellow River Scenic Area, Zhengzhou, China. Source: Public domain

By Veronica Parkes