The Eternal City After 476 AD

The year 476 AD marked one of the most pivotal moments in Western history. It was the year that Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain, deposed Romulus Augustulus, the last Western Roman Emperor. This major event, often referred to as the “Fall of Rome” (although not all historians agree with this), didn’t signal the immediate end of Roman civilization as the world knew it. Instead, it was the beginning of a profound and prolonged transformation. In the centuries that followed, Rome experienced significant political, social, and economic changes. New foreign threats would emerge, new alliances would be formed, and the city would adapt to these new realities. Every ending is a new beginning, and in 476 AD, the Eternal City began its evolution from an imperial center to something new but just as important.

An Empire Falls, Rome Evolves – The Immediate Aftermath

Unsurprisingly, there was a fair bit of upheaval after Odoacer removed the 11-year-old Romulus Augustulus from the throne. Odoacer immediately established himself as the first King of Italy and kicked off a new era in the city of Rome’s history.

Initially, Odoacer took somewhat of a conservative approach. He left much of the existing Roman administrative framework in place (if it isn’t broken, don’t fix it), which allowed for a degree of continuity with the previous regime. He also acknowledged the legitimacy of the Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno, effectively making himself the viceroy of the Byzantine Empire. This strategic political maneuvering allowed for a semblance of legitimacy in the eyes of the Roman population and the Eastern Empire.

Having defeated the Odoacer in 493 AD, Theodoric the Great guided the rise of the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy. (CC BY-SA 4.0)

However, Odoacer wasn’t around long enough to make any major changes. In 489 AD, Theodoric the Great, leader of the Ostrogoths, invaded Italy at the behest of Emperor Zeno. It took four years, but Theodoric eventually beat Odoacer in 493 AD. Ostrogothic rule was declared over Italy, and Ravenna was made its new capital.

Theodoric the Great ensured peace between the Romans and Goths of Ravenna during his reign. (Ввласенко / CC BY-SA 3.0)

Rome may have lost some status, but Theodoric’s reign (493-526 AD) was a relatively stable time for the city. Theodoric may have been a “barbarian,” but he respected Rome’s institutions and culture. He kept the Roman Senate going, maintained Roman law, and even carried out some restoration projects in the city. He allowed the Romans a certain degree of self-governance, and his administration employed many Romans in high positions. This fostered cooperation between the Gothic rulers and the old Roman elite, reducing the risk of an uprising.

This being said, it wasn’t all sunshine and roses for Rome. Its loss of status led to a severe population decline. By the end of the 5th century AD, its population was down to a mere 100,000, a long way from its 800,000 to 1,000,000 peak at the height of the empire. Of course, this shift in demographics led to massive ramifications for the city’s infrastructure, economy, and social fabric.

Byzantine Influence and the Gothic War

The relative period of stability under Ostrogothic rule was put to an end in 535 AD when the Byzantine Emperor, Justinian I, decided he wanted to reclaim the former Western Roman Empire. This campaign, which lasted from 535 to 554 AD, became known as the Gothic War.

During this period, the city of Rome repeatedly changed hands between different Gothic and Byzantine forces. The first switch came in 536, when the Byzantine general, Belisarius, managed to capture the ancient city. It remained under Byzantine control until 546, when the Gothic king Totila came along and reclaimed it. Totila’s success was particularly important because he temporarily depopulated the city in a strategic move that highlighted how vulnerable large cities had become during this period of constant conflict. 

The Goth King Totila razes the walls of Florence during the Gothic War: illumination from the Chigi manuscript of Villani’s Cronica. (Public Domain)

It was a tough time for Rome. The city’s population, already a fraction of what it had once been, plummeted to approximately 30,000. On top of this, much of the city’s impressive Roman architecture, like its aqueducts and ancient public buildings, either fell into disrepair or fell victim to the conflict. The iconic Baths of Caracalla, a symbol of Roman civic life, ceased to function during this period.

The war ended in 554 AD with a Byzantine victory. Rome came under Eastern Roman control and was governed by a Byzantine official called the Duke of Rome. Rome’s governance had seen few changes under Ostrogothic rulers, but this was about to change under the Byzantine Duke. The Roman Senate had its influence and relevance rapidly diminish until it was eventually abolished. 

However, Byzantine control of Rome proved tenuous. The empire had overextended itself and would now struggle to maintain control of its newly acquired Italian territories. This period of Byzantine rule, while relatively brief, set the stage for the growing influence of the papacy and new challenges from Lombard invaders in the following decades.

The Rise of Papal Power

As the Byzantine emperor’s grasp on Rome and his other Italian territories weakened, it created a power vacuum that the Bishop of Rome, aka the Pope, was more than happy to exploit. The papacy soon emerged as a major political and spiritual center. The transition was gradual but profound and fundamentally shifted the power structure in Rome as well as its role in the wider Christian world.

How the papacy became so powerful can be linked to several factors. For a start, the Church’s organizational structure survived despite repeated political upheavals. This created a sense of stability that citizens were attracted to. Secondly, the Pope’s claim to spiritual authority as the successor of St. Peter lent legitimacy to his expanding temporal power.

Thirdly, there’s Gregory I (590–604 AD), also known as Gregory the Great. He played a crucial role in the papacy’s transformation and ascension. His rule marked a turning point during which, as the pope, he also acted as Rome’s civil administrator. He negotiated with the Lombards (who we’ll come to soon) and managed the city’s food supplies. On top of this, he expanded his Church’s missionary activities and strengthened its administrative structures.

Miniature of Gregory the Great writing, from a 12th-century copy of his Dialogues (British Library/CC0)

The next big boost to papal power came in 756 AD with the Donation of Pepin. This grant from Frankish king Pepin the Short gifted the papacy many central Italian states that would form the Papal States. This transformed the Pope from being a spiritual leader and administrator of a city to a true territorial ruler.

This boost in power fundamentally changed the Pope’s relationship with secular rulers. On the one hand, the papacy continued to rely on outside protection from the likes of the Byzantines and later the Franks. On the other hand, now that it had its own territories, the papacy needed to assert its independence while maintaining spiritual authority over those it asked for help.

Rome Under Lombard Threat

By the end of the 8th century, the Pope had become Rome’s de facto ruler, but it wasn’t an easy journey. One particular stumbling block had been the Lombards. These Germanic people, who had begun laying claim to Italy in 568 AD, were a thorn in the sides of both the Byzantine Empire and the papacy in Rome.

The Lombards established their kingdom in the north of Italy, with their capital at Pavia. Over time they expanded their influence southward, and by the late 6th century, Lombard duchies surrounded Rome. This effectively isolated the city from Byzantium’s other Italian territories. Suffice it to say, this was not a good thing for Rome.

Rome’s defenses had been weakened by the many years of conflict and subsequent neglect. The city’s primary fortifications were the Aurelian Walls, built in the 3rd century AD. These walls had largely been left to rot, and the Byzantine military presence in the city, led by the Duke of Rome, was massively outnumbered by the Lombard threat.

In 593, King Agilulf of the Lombards sieged Rome. It was unsuccessful but highlighted how vulnerable the city had become. As a result, Pope Gregory I was forced to take on a more active role in the city’s defense and diplomacy. He negotiated with the Lombards directly, giving his office a serious boost in the process. 

Realizing the papacy could no longer rely solely on Byzantine backup, the Popes turned to the Franks for help against the Lombards. Pope Stephen II formalized this alliance in Francia in 753–754 AD. This alliance led to Pepin the Short not only helping fight off the Lombards but also gifting the states mentioned earlier.

Pepin the Short, miniature, Imperial Chronicle (Public Domain)

The Lombards ceased to be an issue in 774 AD when the legendary king Charlemagne took their kingdom. This event marked the beginning of a new era in Rome’s history, characterized by closer ties to the Frankish world and the emerging concept of a revived Western Empire.

Rome’s Place in the Emerging Medieval World

Eventually, the Western Roman Empire fell too and faded into history. Rome itself, however, was still standing strong and continued to play a key role in the emerging medieval world. The city had learned to change and evolve, changing from an imperial powerhouse to a spiritual one.

Even as Rome’s economic and political power waned over the centuries, it remained symbolically important. The city was still seen as the caput mundi (head of the world) by many Europeans, a status reinforced by its association with St. Peter and the papacy. This romantic view of Rome heavily influenced political thought towards the city throughout the Middle Ages. In particular, it led to concepts like the translatio imperii (transfer of rule), which posited continuity between the Roman Empire and subsequent political entities.

The city increasingly attracted pilgrims during this period. It had not only the tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul but also the relics of countless other saints, all of which attracted pilgrims from across Europe. Many of these Pilgrims were wealthy, and this influx boosted the old city’s economy and spread Roman and Christian influences throughout the continent. The development of guidebooks for pilgrims, such as the 7th-century “Einsiedeln Itinerary,” attests to the importance of this phenomenon.

Rome also remained influential in the world of academia, although its influence changed. The city’s many monasteries and churches were a crucial repository of classical knowledge. Their vast libraries preserved many ancient texts and allowed the knowledge they held to be passed on to later generations. The Gregorian mission to England in 597 AD, for instance, brought both Christianity and elements of Roman culture and learning to the British Isles.

Artistically, Rome continued to exert major influence. The Roman architectural style, particularly in church buildings, spread throughout Europe. The basilica form, for example, became the standard model for churches across the continent. Roman artistic motifs and techniques, often transmitted through religious art, influenced medieval artistic development far beyond the city’s walls.

Rome also influenced how other countries governed themselves. The evolving papal administration in Rome became a model for bureaucratic organization that went on to influence secular governments. The papal chancery, for instance, developed sophisticated systems for document production and record-keeping that were emulated by royal courts across Europe. 

Most importantly, Rome’s position in the new medieval world was cemented through its relationships with the other rising powers. The papacy’s alliance with the Frankish kings culminated in Charlemagne’s coronation as Emperor in Rome in 800 AD. This event highlights how the city continued to be a focal point for concepts like imperial authority, even though its days as an imperial power were long gone. 

Rome was no longer the capital of the world’s largest empire, but it still held huge sway. It was at the center of political, religious, and cultural networks that spanned medieval Europe. Its imperial legacy, combined with its new role as the center of Western Christianity, made sure that the Eternal City continued to be just that. 

Conclusion

The fall of Rome in 476 AD wasn’t so much an end as it was a transformation. From Odoacer’s rule to the rise of papal power, from Byzantine reconquest to Lombard threats, the city of Rome learned to adapt to each new reality. Its population may have declined dramatically, its urban landscape may have evolved, and its economy may have changed, but the city survived. Once an imperial capital, it became the center of Western Christianity.

But Rome didn’t change completely. Its cultural and spiritual importance endured. As the seat of the papacy and a repository of classical knowledge, Rome continued to exert profound influence on the emerging medieval world. The Eternal City changed, but it never truly fell. It remained a pivotal force in shaping European civilization throughout the medieval period and beyond. 

Top image: Belisarius under the walls of Rome.   Source:  Amelianus/CC BY NC-ND-SA 3.0

By Robbie Mitchell